-: SEMICONDUCTOR CHIPS :-
Today, semiconductor is heart of technology, beating possibilities. Growth of the semiconductor production revolutionize the growth of technology like Artificial Intelligence, Machine learning, cloud and Edge Computing, Data & Cyber security. Today we have totally integrated manufacturing facility, starts from a needle to car or airplane manufacturing.
The Commercial Chip manufacturing involves
1. System definition
2. Architecture design and optimization
3. RTL (register transfer language) coding (pre- and post-synthesis) simulation and verification, synthesis, place and route, timing
analyses and timing closure, and
4. Multi-step semiconductor device fabrication including wafer processing, die preparation, IC packaging and testing, et al.
ASIC:
The invention of ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Services) has caused a tremendous change in our daily lives. Today, we have different types and configurations of IC’s. But these ASICs can be limited only for one specific application while some ICs can be reprogrammed and used for various applications, but these cannot be reprogrammed or neither can be used for general application as they are customized. Moreover, these chips have to be designed from the basic level as they are designed to perform particular task which are highly costly per unit and takes larger time to market margin. The main advantage ASIC chip offers is, it minimizes the size of a chip as it enables to perform the various number of functions of a circuit over a single chip. It includes a 32-bit microprocessor, memory blocks, and network circuits.
Such type of ASICs is known as System on Chip (SoC). With the enhancement in the manufacturing and research technology ASIC chips are developed customizable, due to which they provide low flexibility for programming.The global ASIC chip market is analyzed by type, application, and region. Based on type, the market is analyzed across full custom, semi-based custom and programmable logic devices. On the basis of application, the market is divided into aerospace subsystem & sensor, wireless communication, medical instrumentation, telecommunication products, consumer electronics, and others. Based on region, it is analyzed across North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, and LAMEA along with their prominent countries. The key players profiled in the report include AMD, Texas Instruments, On Semiconductor, Xilinx Inc., Samsung Electronics Ltd., TSMC, Intel Corporation, Infineon Technologies, Bit main Technologies Ltd., and NVIDIA Corporation. These key players have adopted strategies, such as product portfolio expansion, mergers & acquisitions, agreements, geographical expansion, and collaborations, to enhance their market penetration.
DSP:
A digital signal processor (DSP) is a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of digital signal processing. DSPs are fabricated on MOS integrated circuit chips. They are widely used in audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image processing, radar, sonar and speech recognition systems, and in common consumer electronic devices like, mobile phones, disk drives and high-definition television (HDTV) products. The goal of a DSP is usually to measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals. Most general-purpose microprocessors can also execute digital signal processing algorithms successfully. but may not be able to keep up with such processing continuously in real-time. Also, dedicated DSPs usually have better power efficiency, thus they are more suitable in portable devices such as mobile phones because of power consumption constraints. DSPs often use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data or instructions at the same time. DSPs often also implement data compression technology, with the discrete cosine transform (DCT) in particular being a widely used compression technology in DSPs. Digital Signal Processing is used everywhere. DSP is used primarily in arenas of audio signal, speech processing, RADAR, seismology, audio, SONAR, voice recognition, and some financial signals. For example, Digital Signal Processing is used for speech compression for mobile phones, as well as speech transmission for mobile phones. DSP is also used in elite headset equipment to protect users from hearing damage the same suppression and enhancement concept is equally important here. Leading industries in the field of hearing protection and on-the-job communication such as Sensear use Digital Signal Processing to create a safe, quality communication experience. Other applications include Mp3 file manipulation, CAT scans, computer graphics, MRI, and even amplifiers for certain electric guitars.The purpose of Digital Signal Processing is, as mentioned before, to filter the analog signals from current time and space. It is used in a wide variety of technology equipment but, is an especially critical aspect of noise suppression and voice enhancement communication equipment.
Components of Digital Signal ProcessingThere are a handful of different “parts” that make up a successful DSP system: * Input and Output. This is the interface to the physical world and other devices. In short, analog signals are converted to digital, processed, and then converted back to the analog domain to interact once again with headset users.
* DSP chip. The “brain” of a DSP system. All of the necessary calculations and algorithms are performed here. * Memory. This is where DSP algorithms are stored.
* Program memory. Like any memory program, the program memory of a DSP stores the programs needed for data to be translated. * Computer Engine. This is the part of DSP that
computes all of the mathematical functions that take place during communication. * Data memory. Storage space for any information that may need to be processed.
FPGA:
Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) was invented in 1984 by Xilinx. These are integrated circuits that contain millions of logic gates that can be electrically configured (i.e., the gates are field programmable) to perform certain tasks. Any computer like microcontroller, microprocessor, graphic processor or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) is basically a digital electronic circuit that can perform certain tasks based on an instruction set. The instruction set contains the machine codes that can be implemented by the digital circuitry of the computer on some data where the data is stored and manipulated on registers or memory chips.
The FPGA takes the design to hardware level where an engineer can design a (simple) computing device from the architecture level and this simple computer is designed and fabricated to perform a specific application. Though, FPGA can be used to design an ALU and other digital circuitry to perform simple computational tasks, it is in fact no match to a microcontroller or microprocessor in computing terms. A microprocessor or microcontroller is a true computing device with complex architecture.
However, FPGA is quite comparable to Application Specific Integrated Circuits where any ASIC function can be custom designed and fabricated on FPGA.Mid-range field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) can be defined as those with a logic density count in the range of 100K to 500K as compared to higher density FPGAs with logic densities ranging from 1M to 9M. High-range FPGAs are popularly used in applications such as advanced driver-assistance systems and data centers, while mid-range FPGAs deploy into a variety of embedded applications such as surveillance, gateway deices, small cell wireless applications, medical and industrial imaging, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) monitoring. Microcontrollers let an engineer expertise in high level language or assembly language to design software for a computer, but FPGA let an engineer to design a computer (a simple computing device) by own. This hardware based embedded design requires detailed knowledge of digital circuit design and computer architecture. Like microcontrollers are programmed using Assembly Language or a High-Level Language (like C), FPGA chips are programmed using Verilog or VHDL language. Like C Code or assembly code is converted to machine code for execution on respective CPU, VHDL language converts to digital logic blocks that are then fabricated on FPGA chip to design a custom computer for specific application. Using VHDL or Verilog, an engineer designs the data path and ALU hardware from root level. Even a microprocessor or microcontroller can be designed on FPGA provided it has sufficient logic blocks to support such design.
Static RAM:
Volatile memory devices are types of storage devices which hold their content till power is applied to them. When power is switched off, these memories lose their content. The RAM memory chip, referred to as a main memory, is a storage location that allows information to be stored and accessed quickly from random location withmemory module. The memory cell which can be accessed for information transfer to or from any desired random location is called a Random-Access Memory. A RAM memory is designed with a collection of storage cells. Each cell contains either BJT or MOSFET based on type of memory module.
Dynamic RAM:
The Dynamic Random-Access Memory is a type of RAM module that stores each bit of data within a separate capacitor. This is an efficient way to store the data in memory because it requires less physical space to store the data.A particular size of DRAM can hold more amounts of data than a SRAM chip with the same size. The capacitors in DRAM need to be constantly recharged to keep their charge. This is the reason why DRAM requires more power. Each DRAM memory chip consists of a storage locations or memory cells. It is made up of capacitor and transistor which can hold either active or inactive state. Each DRAM cell is referred to as a bit. When the DRAM cell holds a value at active state ‘1’, the charge is at high state. When the DRAM cell holds a value at inactive state ‘0’, the charge is below a certain level.
ROM:
Non-volatile memories are permanent storage types of memory chips which can get back stored information even when the power is switched off. An example of non-volatilememory device is Read Only Memory (ROM). The ROM stands for Read Only Memory. ROM can only be used to read from but cannot be written upon. These memory devices are non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. The ROM can store instructions which are required to start computer when power is given to the computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. A ROM memory cell is designed with a single transistor. The ROM memory is not only used in the computers but also in other electronic devices like controllers, micro-ovens, washing machines etc. A ROM family is designed with collection of storage cells. Each memory cell contains either bipolar or MOSFET transistor based on types of memory.
PROM:
The Programmable read only memory (PROM) can be modified only once by the user. The PROM is manufactured with series of fuses. The chip is programmed by the PROM programmer wherein some fuses are burnt. The open fuses are read as ones, while the burned fuses are read as zeros.
EPROM:
The erasable programmable read only memory is one of the special types of memory modules that can be programmed any number of times to correct the errors. It can retain its contents until exposed to ultraviolet light.The ultraviolet light erases its contents making It is possible to program the memory. To write and erase the EPROM memory chip, we need a special device called PROM programmer. The EPROM is programmed by forcing electrical charge on a small piece of poly silicon metal known as floating gate, which is located in the memory cell. When charge is present in this gate the cell is programmed, i.e. memory contains ‘0’. When charge is not present in the gate, the cell is not programmed, i.e. memory contains ‘1’.
EEPROM:
EEPROM is a user modified read only memory chip that can be erased and programmed for a number of times. These memory devices are used in computers and other electronic devices to store small amount of data that must be saved when the power supply is removed. The content of EEPROM is erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. The EEPROM data is stored and removed 1 byte of data at a time. The EEPROM does not need to be removed from the computer to be modified.
The changing the content does not require the additional equipment.The modern EEPROM allows multi byte page operations and has limited life. The EEPROM can be designed 10 to 1000 write cycles. When the number of write operations is completed, the EEPROM stops working. EEPROM is a storage device that can be implemented with fewer standards in cell design. The more common cell is composed of two transistors. The storage transistor has a floating gage similar to EPROM. The EEPROMs has two families which are serial EEPROM and parallel EEPROM. The parallel EEPROM is faster and cost effective then serial memory.
FLASH MEMORY:
The flash memory is the most widely used device for electronics and computer devices. The flash memory is among the special types of memory that can be erased and programmed with a block of data. The flash memory keeps its data even with no power at all. The flash memory is popular because it works fast and efficiently than EEPROM. The flash memory module is designed for about 100000 -10000000 write cycles. The main constraint with the flash memory is number of times data can be written to it. The data can be read from flash memory as many times as desired, but after a certain number of write operations, it will stop working. On-Chip Memory The On-Chip memory is referred to any memory module like RAM, ROM or other memories but that physically exits on the microcontroller itself. Different microcontrollers -types like 8051 micro-controllers has limited On-Chip ROM memory. However, it has a capability of expanding to a maximum of 64KB of external ROM memory and 64KB external RAM memory.
MICROCONTROLLER:
A microcontroller is also called an embedded controller because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built into or embedded in the devices they control. In this system. When developing an embedded system, one of the options is to base the computational hardware around a microcontroller, MCU rather than a microprocessor, MPU. Both approaches have their attractions, but generally they will be found in different applications. Typically, the microcontroller, MCU, is found in applications where size, low power and low cost are key requirements. The MCU, microcontroller is different to a microprocessor in that it contains more elements of the overall processing engine within the one chip.The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LED's, small or custom liquid-crystal displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer and may lack human interaction devices of any kind.
MICROPROCESSOR:
Embedded processors can be broken into two broad categories. Ordinary microprocessors (μP) use separate integrated circuits for memory and peripherals.
Microcontrollers (μC) have on-chip peripherals, thus, reducing power consumption, size and cost. Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e., microprocessors with integrated memory andperipheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also common, especially in more complex systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general purpose to those specialized in a certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application at hand. A microprocessor control program (embedded software) can be easily tailored to different needs of a product line, allowing upgrades performance with minimal redesign of the product. Different features can be implemented in different models of a product line at negligible production cost. An embedded microprocessor is a computer chip used inside several devices and equipment to provide added functionality.
A microprocessor is a digital electronic component with transistors integrated on a single semiconductor IC that is small and consumes less power. A microprocessor chip is built by using semiconductor devices wherein thousands of transistors are integrated into a single chip for better performance. When we look at microprocessor’s history, the Pentium 4 processors have around 40-50 million transistors. The major microprocessor’s parts include: * ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) * Memory unit * Control Unit * Registers * System Bus Types of Microprocessors The classification of embedded-microprocessor depends on several factors like computing performance, availability of memory, type of application, etc., and some of these microprocessors include: * Complex instruction set microprocessors * Reduced instruction set microprocessors * Superscalar microprocessors * Application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) * Digital signal microprocessors (DSPs)Microprocessor based
embedded system has various kind of utility like in home and industrial PC’s, super computers, server and work-station, robotic computers, Satellite and Navigation system, aerospace and defense system.
Power management ICs or PMIC:
Are the unsung heroes behind sleek smartphones, cars with advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), and the highly diverse Internet of Things (IoT) designs. And these power companions to chipset, processor, and memory have constantly been evolving over the decade to optimize power consumption and boost energy efficiency. PMICs regulate, manage, and protect power using a variety of semiconductor devices, including voltage converters and regulators, battery chargers, load switches, sequencers, etc. While PMICs have been a staple in electronics design for many years. It’s because the amount of computation is continuously rising in system-on-chip (SoC) designs
to add more functionality via hardware accelerators running machine vision and other deep learning algorithms. At the same time, however, these powerful chips with multi-core CPUs and GPUs demand circuitry that further enhance energy efficiency and create more flexible power sequencing.Three major factors driving innovation in PMICs and new in power management footprint in embedded computing systems. 1. Greater Integration 2. Adaptable PMICs3. Automotive and Industrial IoT.
